Diet of the Indochinese silvered langur (Trachypithecus germaini) in Kien Luong Karst area,Kien Giang Province

The Indochinese silvered langur (Trachypithecus germaini) is distributed to the west of Mekong River in Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand and Vietnam. During a two‐year study, from May 2014 to May 2016, we collected 320.44 hr of behavior, with 17,040 feeding bouts recorded (142 hr) for T. germaini on Chua Hang Karst Mountain, Kien Luong District, Kien Giang Province, Vietnam. Feeding accounted for 45% of the Indochinese silvered langurs’ activity budget. The plant diet of the Indochinese silvered langurs was principally composed of young leaves (58%), followed by mature leaves (9.5%), fruits (22.7%), flowers (4.7%), buds (3.3%), petioles (1.2%), and other (0.5%). A total of 58 plant species were fed on by the silvered langurs, and leaves of eight species (Phyllathus reticulatus, Ficus rumphii, Ficus tinctoria, Ficus microcarpa, Cayratia trifolia, Streblus ilicifolia, Combretum latifolium, and Streblus asper) were fed on throughout the year. P. reticulatus was most frequently eaten (13.9% feeding time, n = 1,733). Food selection differed significantly between months and seasons. The Indochinese silvered langurs ate 27 plant species in the wet season compared with 23 plant species in the dry season. Leaf chemical composition of two food categories, 16 eaten species (with 10 most frequently consumed species and six least consumed species), and four noneaten species, were analyzed. Feeding samples from eaten species in the Indochinese silvered langurs's diet contained lower amounts of condensed tannin, lignin, protein, ash, and lipids, but a higher amount of total sugar compared with samples from noneaten species. Furthermore, the most frequently consumed species contained lower amounts of lignin compared with the less frequently consumed species. Using a generalized linear model with five variables, including neutral detergent fiber (NDF), total sugar, lignin, lipid, and calcium (Ca) indicated that NDF positively correlated and lignin content negatively correlated with feeding records in the diet of these langur.     

Monandrous social organization of pigtailed langurs ( Simias concolor ) in the Pagai Islands, Indonesia

Between June 1986 and October 1992, in 3 periods totaling 12 months, we studied social organization of pigtailed langurs (Simias concolor)in the Pagai Islands, Indonesia. With one possible exception, all of 20 family groups contained only 1 adult male each. Nine of them contained only 1 adult female,and 11 contained ≥2 adult females. Mean group size is 4.1 individuals. Home ranges varied from 7 to 20 ha, and population density averages 21 animals/km ² . Simias concoloris sexually dimorphic⤖n a museum sample males average 29% heavier than females, and their canine teeth are on average nearly twice the length of female canines. Combined data from several studies indicate that 60% of S. concolorgroups contain an adult pair plus young,and 40% are multifemale groupings. We sggest that any 1-male mating system that comprises a mixture of 1-female and multifemale groups in the same population should be termed monandry.     

中国石山叶猴生态学研究进展

喀斯特石山是一类特殊环境,生存在喀斯特石山的动物形成特殊的行为机制以适应这一特殊的环境。石山叶猴是仅分布于喀斯特石山地区的珍稀濒危灵长类动物,属疣猴亚科乌叶猴属的一个种组,包括黑叶猴（Trachypithecus francoisi）、白头叶猴（T.leucocephalus）、德氏叶猴（T.delacouri）、金头叶猴（卡巴叶猴,T.poliocephalus）、越南乌叶猴（T.hatinhensis）、印支黑叶猴（T.ebenus）、老挝乌叶猴（T.laotum）7种。迄今为止,对分布于中国的黑叶猴和白头叶猴的生态学已有较多研究,而对其他石山叶猴的研究较缺乏。本文对中国黑叶猴和白头叶猴的种群生态学、行为生态学、保护生物学研究进行综述,以促进叶猴生态学理论的发展和完善,为我国特有珍稀濒危动物保护提供基础资料。未来研究应关注石山叶猴的种群历史以及对栖息地破碎化和气候变化的适应机制等问题。     

河静黑叶猴果实性食物组成、选择及其对种子的扩散作用

喀斯特森林的生态环境较其他类型的森林更为脆弱.由于抗干扰和恢复能力低,喀斯特森林中种子扩散对维持植物种群的续存与更新具极其重要的作用.叶猴以叶为主要食物,果实是仅列其后的第二大食物资源.对分布于喀斯特生境的叶猴来说,它们对果实的取食具有潜在的种子传播作用.基于此,于2009年7月-2010年12月,在越南广平的风芽-格邦国家自然公园,通过实地跟踪观察结合粪便收集调查了河静黑叶猴(Trachypithecus francoisi hatinhensis)对果实的选择及其对种子的潜在扩散作用.河静黑叶猴全年共采食果实类食物38科131种,取食的果实种类和取食高峰持续期均高于其他地区黑叶猴对果实的取食.这得益于当地原始雨林中丰富的果实食物资源.河静黑叶猴对果实种类没有明显的选择偏好(-0.3＜S112种果实＜0.3),果实资源的可获得性亦不影响其对果实的取食频次(r=-0.13,P=0.15＞0.05),在雨季的果实食物种类和取食强度上均高于旱季(z=-2.903,P=0.02＜0.05).在果实性状的选择上,河静黑叶猴对处理难度较小的浆果和核果(两种类型的果实共106种,占80.9％)有明显的选择偏好,更多地选择黄色(46种)、红色(29种)和绿色(14种)(三种颜色的果实占果实种类的68.7％),重量多为5 g以上较大的果实(共104种,占果实种类的79.4％),更多地选择果实内仅有1-2颗种子的果实.河静黑叶猴多吞食直径小于3 cm的种子,在猴群的粪便中发现了85种果实的种子,尤以肉质的浆果和核果最多,如垂叶榕(Ficus benjamina)、柿叶青梅(Vatica diospyroides)、构树(Broussonetia papyrifera)等.最远传播距离可达397 m.对其他的果实,则以吐出或丢弃的方式短距离传播,多集中在6-20 m范围.河静黑叶猴是一些果实较大或果皮较硬的植物重要的潜在扩散媒介,因为此类种子不能依靠鸟类吞食传播,如水浦桃(Syzygium jambos)、红毛丹(Nephelium lappaceum)和木奶果(Baccaurea ramiflora)等.河静黑叶猴一年中在雨季的夏秋两季(8-12月)对果实的取食强度达到高峰,这期间每月在猴群粪便中发现的种子数量均超过1000.结果反映出河静黑叶猴对喀斯特森林中的果实植物种子有潜在的传播作用.     

广西弄岗黑叶猴栖息地选择与利用

2005年9月至2006年8月对广西弄岗国家自然保护区内一群黑叶猴进行行为观察,采用瞬时扫描法观察并收集猴群的栖息地利用数据,分析黑叶猴对喀斯特石山栖息地的选择与利用规律。结果表明,黑叶猴对不同山体部位的利用有显著性差异(χ~2=43.063,df=4,P0.001)。黑叶猴对崖壁的利用频率最高(占总记录的36.67%±9.44%),其次是山坡(32.30%±9.57%),对山脚(14.15%±5.01%)、山顶(11.24%±8.42%)和平地(5.63%±2.92%)的利用较少。分析发现,黑叶猴对山体部位的利用没有显著的季节性差异(山顶:Z=-0.160,P=0.837;崖壁:Z=-0.320,P=0.749;山坡:Z=-0.480,P=0.631;山脚:Z=-1.601,P=0.109;平地:Z=0,P=1)。黑叶猴将崖壁作为主要的休息场所,山坡和山脚为主要的移动和觅食场所。黑叶猴对栖息地的利用受食物可获得性的影响。当食物中花的可获得性降低时,猴群增加对山脚的利用;当嫩叶可获得性降低时,猴群增加在崖壁移动的频率;当果实的可获得性升高时,猴群增加在平地觅食的频率。食物组成与黑叶猴栖息地利用也有关系。总体来看,黑叶猴对山顶的利用频率与花的觅食比例呈显著正相关;对山脚的利用频率与果实+种子的觅食比例呈显著正相关。猴群在山顶休息的频率随花和成熟叶的觅食比例的上升而上升;在山脚休息的频率随果实+种子的觅食比例的上升而上升。猴群在山坡觅食的频率随果实+种子的觅食比例的下降而上升;在山脚觅食的频率随嫩叶的觅食比例的下降而上升。另外,平均最低温度与猴群在平地觅食的频率呈负相关关系。分析表明食物的分布和数量对黑叶猴栖息地利用有重要影响,黑叶猴对栖息地的选择是在觅食利益与风险之间进行权衡的结果。     

广西恩城保护区黑叶猴种群数量和保护现状

黑叶猴是栖息于喀斯特石山地区的珍稀濒危灵长类动物,由于非法捕杀和栖息地丧失,种群数量急剧减少。2017年10-12月,我们采用样方法调查恩城国家级自然保护区及其周边地区黑叶猴的种群分布、数量及保护现状,分析其致危因素,为制定有效管理行动计划提供理论依据。本次调查共记录到黑叶猴夜宿地89处,其中有43处夜宿地下方有新鲜排泄物。结合本次调查和访问,确定黑叶猴的种群数量为18群100~105只,包括1只全白化黑叶猴成年雌性个体;其中11群分布在保护区内,7群分布在保护区外。猴群由3~12只个体组成。栖息地破碎化和退化是威胁恩城保护区黑叶猴种群生存的主要因素。     

Seasonal Variation in the Activity Patterns and Time Budgets of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Trachypithecus francoisi</Emphasis> in the Nonggang Nature Reserve,China

Activity patterns and time budgets are 2 important aspects of animal behavior that researchers use to investigate ecological influences on individual behavior. We collected data on activity patterns and time budgets in 1 group of François’ langurs (Trachypithecus francoisi) from August 2003 to July 2004 in the Nonggang Nature Reserve, Guangxi Province, China, via instantaneous scan sampling method with 15-min intervals. The diurnal activity pattern of François’ langurs showed morning and afternoon feeding peaks, with a midday resting peak. Seasonal change was apparent in the activity pattern: 2 significant feeding peaks occurred in the dry season and only 1 significant feeding peak in the rainy season. The group spent an average of 51.5% of the daytime resting. Feeding and moving accounted on average for 23.1% and 17.3% of the activity budget, respectively. Subjects spent little time on social activities, averaging 2% for grooming and 5.5% for playing. Their time budgets showed significant seasonal variation: they spent a greater proportion of time on feeding and less time on resting and grooming in the dry season than in the rainy season. They also differed among different sex-age classes: immatures spent more time playing, whereas adults devoted more time to resting, feeding, and grooming. Correlations between time budgets and food items or food availability clearly indicated that François’ langurs might adopt an energy-maximizing strategy when preferred foods were scarce in the dry season.     

Influence of two different diets on fluid and particle retention time Javan langur (Trachypithecus auratus auratus)

In captivity, langurs (foregut fermenting primates) often suffer from digestive disorders, and in particular display soft stools on diets with a high proportion of fruits, vegetables, and grain products. In this study, we tested whether the improvement in feces consistency expected after an omission of vegetables from a conventional diet was also accompanied by a change in the excretion pattern as measured by the mean retention time (MRT). Two adult Javan langurs were kept together and offered a conventional diet of pellets, browse, vegetables, or a diet consisting of pellets and browse only. MRT were measured with cobalt-EDTA as the fluid and chromium oxide as the particle marker before, during, and after the test diet, collecting the feces of both animals together. MRTs of fluids and particles were longer (47/49 h) on the test diet as compared to the usual diet (42/43 h). Feces consistency improved during the test period. The test period was marked by an increased fiber intake; however, on the conventional diet, dietary water intake exceeded the calculated water flux for these animals distinctively, due to the high proportion of vegetables. Therefore, it cannot be decided whether the increase of fiber level alone or also a reduction of the excessive water intake was responsible for the changes observed. Comparing the results of this study to other studies on ingesta retention in foregut fermenting primates, no correlation between the body mass of the animals and the MRTs measured is evident, which is in accordance with observations in other groups of foregut fermenters.     

弄岗黑叶猴的日活动类型和活动时间分配

2005年10月-2006年9月,用瞬时扫描法对广西弄岗自然保护区内的一群黑叶猴(Trachypithecusfran oisi)的日活动节律和活动时间分配进行研究。结果表明:黑叶猴日活动中出现2个觅食高峰和1个休息高峰。觅食高峰分别出现在7:00-9:00和16:00-18:00;休息高峰出现在10:00-14:00。黑叶猴日活动节律表现出明显的季节性变化,表现为旱季上午的觅食高峰被推迟了1h,且觅食时间长于雨季;旱季下午的觅食活动提前1h结束。猴群在雨季较早进入休息高峰,而且中午休息时很少有移动或零星觅食。研究期间,猴群用于休息的时间平均占日活动时间分配的51.99%,移动占20.25%,觅食占18.61%,理毛占7.61%,玩耍占1.20%,其它行为(包括打斗、交配等)仅占0.14%。活动时间分配有明显的季节性差异,主要表现为:与雨季相比,黑叶猴在旱季花费更多的时间用于觅食和移动,而相应地减少用于休息的时间。活动时间分配在不同年龄和性别的个体之间也存在显著差异,表现为成年个体花费更多的时间用于休息和觅食,未成年个体则花费更多的时间用于移动和玩耍;雌性个体比雄性个体花费更多的时间用于理毛。     

Observations on parturition and allomothering in wild capped langur (Trachypithecus pileatus)

A birth during the day by a capped langur (Trachypithecus pileatus Blyth, 1843) was recorded at Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary, Arunachal Pradesh, India. The birth took 43 min. Allomothering was observed 3 h after the birth. An average of 9% of daily active time was shared by four allomothers (three adults, one subadult) during the first 15 days of the infants life. Total time allomothering was proportional to the age of the allomothers (241 min for oldest; 214 min for youngest).